The production of energy from fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) is inextricably linked to the availability of adequate and sustainable supplies of water. While providing the United States with almost 60% of its annual energy needs a, fossil fuels also place a high demand on the Nation's water resources in terms of both use and quality impacts.1 Thermoelectric generation is water intensive ? on average each kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity generated via the steam cycle requires approximately 25 gallons of water to produce. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), power plants rank only slightly behind irrigation in terms of freshwater withdrawals in the United States.2 Water is also required in the mining, processing, and transportation of coal to generate electricity all of which can have direct impacts on water quality. Surface and underground coal mining can result in acidic, metal-laden water that must be treated before it can be discharged to nearby rivers and streams. In addition, the USGS estimates that in 2000 the mining industry withdrew approximately 2 billion gallons per day of freshwater. Although not directly related to water quality, about 10% of total U.S. coal shipments were delivered by barge in 2003.3 Consequently, low river flows can create shortfalls in coal inventories at power plants. Natural gas and oil production can displace significant quantities of ground water. Approximately 10 barrels (420 gallons) of ?produced water? are pumped to the surface for each barrel of oil in the U.S.4 The development of coalbed natural gas resources, commonly referred to as coalbed methane (CBM), can also generate a substantial volume of produced water that may require expensive treatment and disposal. Water management issues can and do materially impact domestic natural gas and oil development projects ? at a time when commodity prices are extremely high and additional supplies are sorely needed